diff --git a/include/bed.h b/include/bed.h
index a3ea53f..32321f0 100644
--- a/include/bed.h
+++ b/include/bed.h
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ struct BEd {
   internal::functions::Function eof_op;
   std::array<std::optional<internal::functions::Suffix>, 26> suffixes;
   internal::theme::Theme theme;
-  std::unordered_map<std::string, internal::syntax::Language> languages;
+  std::unordered_map<std::string, internal::syntax::Language *> languages;
   internal::io::IO &io;
   internal::vase::AppendStorage append{"/tmp"};
 
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/buffer.h b/include/internal/buffer/buffer.h
index 1bb96e6..908be8b 100644
--- a/include/internal/buffer/buffer.h
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/buffer.h
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 #pragma once
 
-#include "clip.h"
+#include "./types/clip.h"
+#include "./types/generic.h"
 #include "decl.h"
-#include "generic.h"
-#include "pch.h"
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/decl.h b/include/internal/buffer/decl.h
index 8ee6f39..361c278 100644
--- a/include/internal/buffer/decl.h
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/decl.h
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ namespace bed::internal::buffer {
 struct Buffer {
   enum struct Kind : uint8_t {
     Generic,
-    Null,
+    History,
     Clip,
     Cancel,
     Shell,
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ struct Buffer {
   std::string name;
 
   explicit Buffer(std::string name, Kind kind)
-      : kind(kind), state(Unmodified), name(name) {};
+      : kind(kind), state(Unmodified), name(std::move(name)) {};
   virtual ~Buffer() = default;
 
   virtual bool waste() = 0;
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/clip.h b/include/internal/buffer/types/clip.h
similarity index 97%
rename from include/internal/buffer/clip.h
rename to include/internal/buffer/types/clip.h
index 88ed46e..cba4c3c 100644
--- a/include/internal/buffer/clip.h
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/types/clip.h
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 #pragma once
 
-#include "decl.h"
-#include "pch.h"
+#include "../decl.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::buffer {
 struct ClipBuffer : Buffer {
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/generic.h b/include/internal/buffer/types/generic.h
similarity index 50%
rename from include/internal/buffer/generic.h
rename to include/internal/buffer/types/generic.h
index 78e0c75..7a1a3f9 100644
--- a/include/internal/buffer/generic.h
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/types/generic.h
@@ -1,26 +1,41 @@
 #pragma once
 
-#include "decl.h"
-#include "pch.h"
+#include "../decl.h"
+#include "history.h"
+#include "shard.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::buffer {
-struct GenericBuffer : Buffer {
-  vase::Shard *root;
+struct HistoryItem {
+  syntax::ParserSnapshot parse_state;
+  vase::Shard *text;
+  std::chrono::system_clock::time_point timestamp;
+  std::string summary;
+};
+
+struct GenericBuffer : ShardBuffer {
+  uint64_t base_version{0};
+  std::chrono::system_clock::time_point timestamp{
+    std::chrono::system_clock::now()
+  };
+  std::string action{"created"};
   std::filesystem::path save_path{};
-  std::string language{};
-  std::optional<syntax::Parser> parser{};
+  std::vector<HistoryItem> undo_stack;
+  std::vector<HistoryItem> redo_stack;
 
   GenericBuffer(std::string name)
-      : Buffer(name, Kind::Generic), root(nullptr) {};
+      : ShardBuffer(name, nullptr, nullptr, Kind::Generic) {}
   ~GenericBuffer();
 
+  void list_history(BEd &ctx);
+  HistoryBuffer *get_history(uint64_t version);
+  void snapshot(std::string action);
+  bool undo(BEd &ctx);
+  bool redo(BEd &ctx);
+  void prune(int = 0);
   bool waste() override;
-  uint64_t lines() override;
-  uint64_t bytes() override;
   void load(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text) override;
   void set_filename(std::filesystem::path path) override;
   std::filesystem::path filename() override;
-  vase::Shard *copy(uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
   void substitute(
     BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line,
     std::string &regex, std::string &replacement, std::string &options
@@ -29,12 +44,5 @@ struct GenericBuffer : Buffer {
   void remove(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
   void append(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text, uint64_t line) override;
   void replace(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
-  void print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
-  void number_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
-  void list_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
-  uint64_t next_closing(uint64_t start) override;
-  uint64_t prev_closing(uint64_t start) override;
-  uint64_t find_next(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) override;
-  uint64_t find_prev(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) override;
 };
 } // namespace bed::internal::buffer
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/types/history.h b/include/internal/buffer/types/history.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc0f103
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/types/history.h
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "../decl.h"
+#include "shard.h"
+
+namespace bed::internal::buffer {
+struct HistoryBuffer : ShardBuffer {
+  HistoryBuffer(
+    std::string name, vase::Shard *root,
+    const syntax::ParserSnapshot &snapshot
+  ) : ShardBuffer(std::move(name), root, snapshot, Kind::History) {}
+
+  bool waste() override {
+    return true;
+  }
+  void load(BEd &, vase::Shard *) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+  void set_filename(std::filesystem::path) override {}
+  std::filesystem::path filename() override {
+    return {};
+  }
+  void substitute(BEd &, uint64_t, uint64_t, std::string &, std::string &, std::string &) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+  void join(BEd &, uint64_t, uint64_t) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+  void remove(BEd &, uint64_t, uint64_t) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+  void append(BEd &, vase::Shard *, uint64_t) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+  void replace(BEd &, vase::Shard *, uint64_t, uint64_t) override {
+    throw ed_error("History buffers are read-only.");
+  }
+};
+} // namespace bed::internal::buffer
diff --git a/include/internal/buffer/types/shard.h b/include/internal/buffer/types/shard.h
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55a9b89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/internal/buffer/types/shard.h
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include "../decl.h"
+
+namespace bed::internal::buffer {
+struct ShardBuffer : Buffer {
+  vase::Shard *root;
+  syntax::ParserSnapshot parse{};
+
+  ShardBuffer(std::string name, vase::Shard *root, syntax::Language *language, Kind kind)
+      : Buffer(std::move(name), kind), root(root) {
+    vase::Shard::retain(root);
+    if (language)
+      parse = syntax::make_parser(root, lines(), language);
+  }
+  ShardBuffer(
+    std::string name,
+    vase::Shard *root,
+    const syntax::ParserSnapshot &snapshot,
+    Kind kind
+  ) : Buffer(std::move(name), kind),
+      root(root),
+      parse(syntax::retain(snapshot)) {
+    vase::Shard::retain(root);
+  }
+  ~ShardBuffer() {
+    vase::Shard::release(root);
+    syntax::release(parse);
+  }
+
+  uint64_t lines() override;
+  uint64_t bytes() override;
+  vase::Shard *copy(uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
+  void print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
+  void number_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
+  void list_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) override;
+  uint64_t next_closing(uint64_t start) override;
+  uint64_t prev_closing(uint64_t start) override;
+  uint64_t find_next(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) override;
+  uint64_t find_prev(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) override;
+};
+} // namespace bed::internal::buffer
diff --git a/include/internal/syntax/decl.h b/include/internal/syntax/decl.h
index 5e9b874..9169bce 100644
--- a/include/internal/syntax/decl.h
+++ b/include/internal/syntax/decl.h
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include "internal/trie/trie.h"
+#include "internal/vase/vase.h"
 #include "pch.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::syntax {
@@ -75,7 +76,11 @@ struct ParseEvent {
 
 struct Language {
   std::function<void *()> none_state;
-  std::function<void(void **, std::string_view, bool, std::vector<Token> *, std::vector<ParseEvent> *)> parse;
+  std::function<void(
+    void **, std::string_view,
+    bool, std::vector<Token> *, std::vector<ParseEvent> *
+  )>
+    parse;
   std::function<void *(void *)> copy;
   std::function<bool(void *, void *)> equal;
   std::function<void(void *)> destroy;
@@ -85,35 +90,125 @@ struct ParseState {
   static constexpr uint64_t BRANCH_BIT = 1ull << 63;
   static constexpr uint64_t LINES_MASK = ~BRANCH_BIT;
   uint64_t header;
+  uint16_t height;
+  std::atomic_uint16_t refs;
   bool is_branch() const {
     return header & BRANCH_BIT;
   }
   uint64_t lines() const {
     return header & LINES_MASK;
   }
+  explicit ParseState(bool branch, uint64_t lines, uint16_t height)
+      : height(height), refs(1) {
+    header = lines;
+    header |= branch * BRANCH_BIT;
+  };
+  static void retain(ParseState *node);
+  static void release(Language &lang, ParseState *node);
+  static ParseState *build(Language &lang, ParseState **pieces, uint64_t lo, uint64_t hi);
+  static ParseState *splice(
+    Language &lang, ParseState *node, vase::Shard *vase,
+    uint64_t line, uint64_t original, uint64_t final
+  );
+  static ParseState *concat(Language &lang, ParseState *a, ParseState *b);
 };
 
 struct ParseStateBranch : ParseState {
   ParseState *left;
   ParseState *right;
+  ParseStateBranch(ParseState *l, ParseState *r)
+      : ParseState(
+          true, l->lines() + r->lines(),
+          1 + std::max(l->height, r->height)
+        ),
+        left(l), right(r) {
+    retain(l);
+    retain(r);
+  }
 };
 
 struct ParseStateLeaf : ParseState {
-  void *state;
-  uint32_t n;
-  uint32_t cap;
-  uint16_t *blocks;
+  static constexpr uint64_t MAX_CHUNK = 512;
+  uint32_t n{0};
   static constexpr uint16_t IS_CLOSING = 0x8000;
   static constexpr uint16_t LINE_MASK = 0x7fff;
+  uint16_t *blocks{nullptr};
+  void *state;
+  ParseStateLeaf(void *state, uint64_t lines, uint32_t n, uint16_t *blocks_)
+      : ParseState(false, lines, 1), n(n), state(state) {
+    blocks = (uint16_t *)malloc(sizeof(uint16_t) * n);
+    memcpy(blocks, blocks_, sizeof(uint16_t) * n);
+  };
+};
+
+struct ParsePieceBuilder {
+  Language &lang;
+  std::vector<ParseState *> pieces;
+  std::vector<uint16_t> blocks;
+  void *piece_state{nullptr};
+  uint64_t chunk_start{0};
+  uint64_t chunk_lines{0};
+  ParsePieceBuilder(Language &lang, uint64_t first_line)
+      : lang(lang), chunk_start(first_line) {}
+  void add(
+    void *state,
+    uint64_t line,
+    const std::vector<ParseEvent> &events
+  ) {
+    if (chunk_lines == 0) {
+      chunk_start = line;
+      piece_state = lang.copy(state);
+    }
+    for (const auto &ev : events) {
+      blocks.push_back(
+        (ev.closing ? ParseStateLeaf::IS_CLOSING : 0)
+        | (line - chunk_start)
+      );
+    }
+    ++chunk_lines;
+    if (chunk_lines == ParseStateLeaf::MAX_CHUNK)
+      flush();
+  }
+  void flush() {
+    if (chunk_lines == 0)
+      return;
+    pieces.push_back(new ParseStateLeaf(
+      piece_state,
+      chunk_lines,
+      blocks.size(),
+      blocks.data()
+    ));
+    piece_state = nullptr;
+    blocks.clear();
+    chunk_lines = 0;
+  }
+  ParseState *finish() {
+    flush();
+    if (pieces.empty())
+      return nullptr;
+    ParseState *root = ParseState::build(lang, pieces.data(), 0, pieces.size());
+    pieces.clear();
+    return root;
+  }
 };
 
 struct TreeCursor {
+  Language &lang;
+  ParseState *root;
   ParseStateLeaf *leaf = nullptr;
   ParseStateBranch *stack[64];
   uint8_t depth = 0;
   bool went_left[64];
-  TreeCursor(ParseState *root, uint64_t target_line, uint64_t *relative);
+  TreeCursor(
+    Language &lang, ParseState *root,
+    uint64_t target_line, uint64_t *relative
+  );
+  ~TreeCursor();
+  TreeCursor(const TreeCursor &) = delete;
+  TreeCursor &operator=(const TreeCursor &) = delete;
   void next();
   void prev();
+  ParseState *prefix();
+  ParseState *suffix();
 };
 } // namespace bed::internal::syntax
diff --git a/include/internal/syntax/parser.h b/include/internal/syntax/parser.h
index 345e714..4d117e5 100644
--- a/include/internal/syntax/parser.h
+++ b/include/internal/syntax/parser.h
@@ -1,57 +1,54 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include "decl.h"
-#include "internal/vase/vase.h"
 #include "pch.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::syntax {
-struct Parser {
-  static constexpr uint64_t MAX_CHUNK = 512;
+struct ParserSnapshot {
+  ParseState *root = nullptr;
+  Language *lang = nullptr;
+};
 
-  ParseState *root;
-  Language lang;
-  bool in_edit = false;
+ParserSnapshot make_parser(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t lines, Language *lang);
+ParserSnapshot retain(const ParserSnapshot &snap);
+void release(ParserSnapshot &snap);
+
+uint64_t next_closing(const ParserSnapshot &snap, uint64_t line);
+uint64_t prev_opening(const ParserSnapshot &snap, uint64_t line);
+
+struct Iterator {
+  ParserSnapshot snap;
+  std::optional<vase::Iterator> it;
+  void *state;
+  uint64_t at;
+  std::vector<Token> tokens;
+  std::vector<ParseEvent> events;
+  Iterator(uint64_t, ParserSnapshot, vase::Shard *);
+  ~Iterator();
+  Iterator(const Iterator &) = delete;
+  Iterator &operator=(const Iterator &) = delete;
+  Iterator(Iterator &&other);
+  Iterator &operator=(Iterator &&other);
+  void next();
+};
+
+std::optional<Iterator> get_hl(const ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t target);
+
+void insert(ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
+void erase(ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
+
+struct Edit {
+  ParserSnapshot *target;
   bool dirty = false;
   uint64_t dirty_start = 0;
   uint64_t dirty_end = 0;
+  int64_t edit_delta = 0;
 
-  Parser(vase::Shard *, uint64_t, Language);
-  ~Parser();
-  Parser(const Parser &) = delete;
-  Parser &operator=(const Parser &) = delete;
+  explicit Edit(ParserSnapshot &snap) : target(&snap) {}
 
-  void reset(vase::Shard *, uint64_t, Language);
-  void erase(vase::Shard *, uint64_t, uint64_t);
-  void insert(vase::Shard *, uint64_t, uint64_t);
-  void modify(vase::Shard *, uint64_t, uint64_t);
-
-  void begin_edit();
-  void erase(uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
-  void insert(uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
-  void end_edit(vase::Shard *vase);
   void mark_dirty(uint64_t start, uint64_t end);
-
-  uint64_t next_closing(uint64_t line);
-  uint64_t prev_opening(uint64_t line);
-
-  std::pair<ParseState *, ParseState *> split_tree(ParseState *node, uint64_t line);
-  ParseState *join_tree(ParseState *a, ParseState *b);
-
-  struct Iterator {
-    Parser *p;
-    std::optional<vase::Iterator> it;
-    void *state;
-    uint64_t at;
-    std::vector<Token> tokens;
-    std::vector<ParseEvent> events;
-    Iterator(uint64_t, Parser *, vase::Shard *);
-    ~Iterator();
-    Iterator(const Iterator &) = delete;
-    Iterator &operator=(const Iterator &) = delete;
-    Iterator(Iterator &&other);
-    Iterator &operator=(Iterator &&other);
-    void next();
-  };
-  std::optional<Iterator> get_hl(vase::Shard *, uint64_t);
+  void insert(uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
+  void erase(uint64_t start, uint64_t count);
+  void commit(vase::Shard *vase);
 };
 } // namespace bed::internal::syntax
diff --git a/include/internal/vase/shard.h b/include/internal/vase/shard.h
index d55debd..9b4ec65 100644
--- a/include/internal/vase/shard.h
+++ b/include/internal/vase/shard.h
@@ -12,13 +12,13 @@ struct Shard {
     Petal
   } kind;
 
-  uint8_t height;
+  uint16_t height;
   std::atomic_uint32_t refs;
 
   uint64_t length;
   uint64_t lines;
 
-  Shard(Kind kind, uint64_t length, uint64_t lines, uint8_t height)
+  Shard(Kind kind, uint64_t length, uint64_t lines, uint16_t height)
       : kind(kind), height(height), refs(1), length(length), lines(lines) {};
 
   static void retain(Shard *n);
@@ -62,5 +62,4 @@ struct Petal : Shard {
     source->retain();
   };
 };
-
 } // namespace bed::internal::vase
diff --git a/src/bed/run.cc b/src/bed/run.cc
index 2907e52..eb7fac0 100644
--- a/src/bed/run.cc
+++ b/src/bed/run.cc
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ BEd::BEd(std::vector<std::string> args, internal::io::IO &io)
   internal::functions::Function::register_posix(*this);
   internal::functions::Function::register_extented(*this);
   internal::functions::Suffix::register_suffixes(*this);
+  languages["ruby"] = new internal::syntax::Language(internal::syntax::ruby::lang_ruby());
   std::string prompt_ = "";
   std::string file = "";
   bool suppress = false;
@@ -47,6 +48,8 @@ BEd::BEd(std::vector<std::string> args, internal::io::IO &io)
 BEd::~BEd() {
   for (auto &[_, buffer] : buffers)
     delete buffer;
+  for (auto &[_, lang] : languages)
+    delete lang;
 }
 
 void BEd::run() {
@@ -162,9 +165,38 @@ void BEd::handle(std::string_view cmd, bool eof) {
 internal::buffer::Buffer &BEd::buffer(const std::string &name) {
   if (name.empty())
     throw ed_error("can't have empty buffer name");
-  auto it = buffers.find(name);
-  if (it != buffers.end())
-    return *it->second;
+  {
+    auto it = buffers.find(name);
+    if (it != buffers.end())
+      return *it->second;
+  }
+  constexpr std::string_view prefix = "history/";
+  if (name.starts_with(prefix)) {
+    std::string_view path{name};
+    path.remove_prefix(prefix.size());
+    auto slash = path.rfind('/');
+    if (slash == std::string_view::npos || slash == 0 || slash == path.size() - 1)
+      throw ed_error("invalid history");
+    std::string bufname(path.substr(0, slash));
+    auto version_str = path.substr(slash + 1);
+    std::size_t version;
+    try {
+      version = std::stoull(std::string(version_str));
+    } catch (...) {
+      throw ed_error("invalid history version");
+    }
+    auto it = buffers.find(bufname);
+    if (it != buffers.end()) {
+      auto &buf_ = *it->second;
+      if (buf_.kind != internal::buffer::Buffer::Kind::Generic)
+        throw ed_error("Only normal buffers can have history.");
+      auto &buf = *(internal::buffer::GenericBuffer *)&buf_;
+      auto *history_buf = buf.get_history(version);
+      buffers.emplace(name, history_buf);
+      return *history_buf;
+    }
+    throw ed_error("Buffer has no history.");
+  }
   auto *buf = new internal::buffer::GenericBuffer(name);
   buffers.emplace(name, buf);
   return *buf;
diff --git a/src/internal/buffer/generic.cc b/src/internal/buffer/generic.cc
index cc4390f..6899679 100644
--- a/src/internal/buffer/generic.cc
+++ b/src/internal/buffer/generic.cc
@@ -3,7 +3,192 @@
 
 namespace bed::internal::buffer {
 GenericBuffer::~GenericBuffer() {
+  for (auto &item : undo_stack) {
+    syntax::release(item.parse_state);
+    vase::Shard::release(item.text);
+  }
+  for (auto &item : redo_stack) {
+    syntax::release(item.parse_state);
+    vase::Shard::release(item.text);
+  }
+}
+
+void GenericBuffer::list_history(BEd &ctx) {
+  uint64_t current = base_version + undo_stack.size();
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < undo_stack.size(); ++i) {
+    auto &item = undo_stack[i];
+    uint64_t version = base_version + i;
+    auto time = std::chrono::system_clock::to_time_t(item.timestamp);
+    std::tm tm = *std::localtime(&time);
+    ctx.io.write_line(
+      std::format(
+        "  {}  {:04}-{:02}-{:02} {:02}:{:02}:{:02} {}",
+        version,
+        tm.tm_year + 1900,
+        tm.tm_mon + 1,
+        tm.tm_mday,
+        tm.tm_hour,
+        tm.tm_min,
+        tm.tm_sec,
+        item.summary
+      )
+    );
+  }
+  {
+    auto time = std::chrono::system_clock::to_time_t(timestamp);
+    std::tm tm = *std::localtime(&time);
+    ctx.io.write_line(
+      std::format(
+        "X {}  {:04}-{:02}-{:02} {:02}:{:02}:{:02} {}",
+        current,
+        tm.tm_year + 1900,
+        tm.tm_mon + 1,
+        tm.tm_mday,
+        tm.tm_hour,
+        tm.tm_min,
+        tm.tm_sec,
+        action
+      )
+    );
+  }
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < redo_stack.size(); ++i) {
+    auto &item = redo_stack[redo_stack.size() - 1 - i];
+    uint64_t version = current + i + 1;
+    auto time = std::chrono::system_clock::to_time_t(item.timestamp);
+    std::tm tm = *std::localtime(&time);
+    ctx.io.write_line(
+      std::format(
+        "  {}  {:04}-{:02}-{:02} {:02}:{:02}:{:02}",
+        version,
+        tm.tm_year + 1900,
+        tm.tm_mon + 1,
+        tm.tm_mday,
+        tm.tm_hour,
+        tm.tm_min,
+        tm.tm_sec,
+        item.summary
+      )
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+HistoryBuffer *GenericBuffer::get_history(uint64_t version) {
+  uint64_t current = base_version + undo_stack.size();
+  if (version < base_version)
+    throw ed_error("History version has been pruned.");
+  if (version < current) {
+    auto &item = undo_stack[version - base_version];
+    return new HistoryBuffer(name, item.text, item.parse_state);
+  }
+  if (version == current)
+    return new HistoryBuffer(name, root, parse);
+  uint64_t redo_offset = version - current - 1;
+  if (redo_offset >= redo_stack.size())
+    throw ed_error("No such history version.");
+  auto &item = redo_stack[redo_stack.size() - 1 - redo_offset];
+  return new HistoryBuffer(name, item.text, item.parse_state);
+}
+
+void GenericBuffer::snapshot(std::string action_) {
+  vase::Shard::retain(root);
+  undo_stack.push_back(
+    HistoryItem{
+      syntax::retain(parse),
+      root,
+      timestamp,
+      action
+    }
+  );
+  for (auto &item : redo_stack) {
+    syntax::release(item.parse_state);
+    vase::Shard::release(item.text);
+  }
+  redo_stack.clear();
+  timestamp = std::chrono::system_clock::now();
+  action = action_;
+}
+
+bool GenericBuffer::undo(BEd &ctx) {
+  if (undo_stack.empty())
+    return false;
+  HistoryItem prev = undo_stack.back();
+  undo_stack.pop_back();
+  vase::Shard::retain(root);
+  redo_stack.push_back(
+    HistoryItem{
+      syntax::retain(parse),
+      root,
+      timestamp,
+      action
+    }
+  );
   vase::Shard::release(root);
+  root = prev.text;
+  syntax::release(parse);
+  parse = prev.parse_state;
+  state = Modified;
+  if (!root) {
+    ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+    ctx.prev().start = 0;
+    ctx.prev().end = 0;
+  } else {
+    ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+    ctx.prev().start = 1;
+    ctx.prev().end = root->lines + 1;
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+bool GenericBuffer::redo(BEd &ctx) {
+  if (redo_stack.empty())
+    return false;
+  HistoryItem next = redo_stack.back();
+  redo_stack.pop_back();
+  vase::Shard::retain(root);
+  undo_stack.push_back(
+    HistoryItem{
+      syntax::retain(parse),
+      root,
+      timestamp,
+      action
+    }
+  );
+  vase::Shard::release(root);
+  root = next.text;
+  syntax::release(parse);
+  parse = next.parse_state;
+  state = Modified;
+  if (!root) {
+    ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+    ctx.prev().start = 0;
+    ctx.prev().end = 0;
+  } else {
+    ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+    ctx.prev().start = 1;
+    ctx.prev().end = root->lines + 1;
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+void GenericBuffer::prune(int keep) {
+  size_t drop =
+    undo_stack.size() > (size_t)keep
+      ? undo_stack.size() - keep
+      : 0;
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < drop; ++i) {
+    syntax::release(undo_stack[i].parse_state);
+    vase::Shard::release(undo_stack[i].text);
+  }
+  undo_stack.erase(
+    undo_stack.begin(),
+    undo_stack.begin() + drop
+  );
+  base_version += drop;
+  for (auto &item : redo_stack) {
+    syntax::release(item.parse_state);
+    vase::Shard::release(item.text);
+  }
+  redo_stack.clear();
 }
 
 bool GenericBuffer::waste() {
@@ -11,19 +196,8 @@ bool GenericBuffer::waste() {
          && root == nullptr;
 }
 
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::lines() {
-  if (root)
-    return root->lines + 1;
-  return 0;
-}
-
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::bytes() {
-  if (root)
-    return root->length + 1;
-  return 0;
-}
-
 void GenericBuffer::load(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text) {
+  snapshot("Load file.");
   if (lines())
     ctx.marks.erase(name, 1, lines());
   vase::Shard::release(root);
@@ -39,7 +213,8 @@ void GenericBuffer::load(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text) {
     ctx.prev().start = 1;
     ctx.prev().end = text->lines + 1;
   }
-  parser.emplace(root, lines(), syntax::ruby::lang_ruby());
+  syntax::release(parse);
+  parse = syntax::make_parser(root, lines(), ctx.languages["ruby"]);
 }
 
 void GenericBuffer::set_filename(std::filesystem::path path) {
@@ -53,24 +228,26 @@ std::filesystem::path GenericBuffer::filename() {
 void GenericBuffer::append(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text, uint64_t line) {
   if (!text)
     return;
+  snapshot(std::format("Insert {} lines after line {}", text->lines + 1, line));
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   ctx.prev().start = line + 1;
   ctx.prev().end = line + text->lines + 1;
   root = vase::insert(&ctx.append, root, text, line);
   ctx.marks.insert(name, line, text->lines + 1);
-  if (parser)
-    parser->insert(root, line, text->lines + 1);
+  if (parse.lang)
+    syntax::insert(parse, root, line, text->lines + 1);
   state = Modified;
 }
 
 void GenericBuffer::remove(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  snapshot(std::format("Remove lines {} to {}", start_line, end_line));
   root = vase::erase(root, start_line, end_line);
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   ctx.prev().start = std::min(start_line, lines());
   ctx.prev().end = std::min(start_line, lines());
   ctx.marks.erase(name, start_line, end_line - start_line + 1);
-  if (parser)
-    parser->erase(root, start_line, end_line - start_line + 1);
+  if (parse.lang)
+    syntax::erase(parse, root, start_line, end_line - start_line + 1);
   state = Modified;
 }
 
@@ -79,17 +256,18 @@ void GenericBuffer::replace(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text, uint64_t start_line, ui
     remove(ctx, start_line, end_line);
     return;
   }
+  snapshot(std::format("Replace lines {} to {} with {} lines", start_line, end_line, text->lines));
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   ctx.prev().start = start_line;
   ctx.prev().end = start_line + text->lines;
   uint64_t new_count = text->lines + 1;
   uint64_t old_count = end_line - start_line + 1;
   root = vase::replace(root, text, start_line, end_line);
-  if (parser) {
-    parser->begin_edit();
-    parser->erase(start_line, old_count);
-    parser->insert(start_line, new_count);
-    parser->end_edit(root);
+  if (parse.lang) {
+    syntax::Edit edit(parse);
+    edit.erase(start_line, old_count);
+    edit.insert(start_line, new_count);
+    edit.commit(root);
   }
   if (new_count > old_count) {
     uint64_t diff = new_count - old_count;
@@ -102,13 +280,14 @@ void GenericBuffer::replace(BEd &ctx, vase::Shard *text, uint64_t start_line, ui
 }
 
 void GenericBuffer::join(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  snapshot(std::format("Join lines {} to {}", start_line, end_line));
   root = vase::join(root, start_line, end_line);
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   ctx.prev().start = start_line;
   ctx.prev().end = start_line;
   ctx.marks.collapse(name, start_line, end_line - start_line);
-  if (parser)
-    parser->erase(root, start_line, end_line - start_line);
+  if (parse.lang)
+    syntax::erase(parse, root, start_line, end_line - start_line);
   state = Modified;
 }
 
@@ -116,11 +295,13 @@ void GenericBuffer::substitute(
   BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line,
   std::string &regex, std::string &replacement, std::string &options
 ) {
+  snapshot(std::format("Substitute /{}/ with /{}/ in lines {} to {}", regex, replacement, start_line, end_line));
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   ctx.prev().start = start_line;
   ctx.prev().end = end_line;
-  if (parser)
-    parser->begin_edit();
+  std::optional<syntax::Edit> edit;
+  if (parse.lang)
+    edit.emplace(parse);
   root = vase::substitute(
     &ctx.append,
     root,
@@ -132,168 +313,19 @@ void GenericBuffer::substitute(
     [&](uint64_t line, uint64_t old_lines, uint64_t new_lines) {
       if (old_lines) {
         ctx.marks.erase(name, line, old_lines);
-        if (parser)
-          parser->erase(line, old_lines);
+        if (edit)
+          edit->erase(line, old_lines);
       }
       if (new_lines) {
-        ctx.marks.insert(name, line, line + new_lines);
-        if (parser)
-          parser->insert(line, new_lines);
+        ctx.marks.insert(name, line, new_lines);
+        if (edit)
+          edit->insert(line, new_lines);
       }
     }
   );
-  if (parser)
-    parser->end_edit(root);
+  if (edit)
+    edit->commit(root);
   ctx.prev().buffername = name;
   state = Modified;
 }
-
-vase::Shard *GenericBuffer::copy(uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
-  return vase::copy(root, start_line, end_line);
-}
-
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::find_next(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) {
-  return vase::find_next(root, pattern, start);
-}
-
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::find_prev(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) {
-  return vase::find_prev(root, pattern, start);
-}
-
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::next_closing(uint64_t start) {
-  if (parser.has_value()) {
-    uint64_t closing = parser->next_closing(start - 1);
-    if (closing == UINT64_MAX)
-      return lines();
-    return closing + 1;
-  } else {
-    start += 10;
-    if (start > lines())
-      return lines();
-    return start;
-  }
-}
-
-uint64_t GenericBuffer::prev_closing(uint64_t start) {
-  if (parser.has_value()) {
-    return parser->prev_opening(start - 1) + 1;
-  } else {
-    if (start > 10)
-      return start - 10;
-    return 0;
-  }
-}
-
-inline void apply(io::IO &io, const Highlight &hl) {
-  io.write("\x1b[0m");
-  const uint8_t r = (hl.fg >> 16) & 0xff;
-  const uint8_t g = (hl.fg >> 8) & 0xff;
-  const uint8_t b = hl.fg & 0xff;
-  io.write(std::format("\x1b[38;2;{};{};{}m", r, g, b));
-  if (hl.bg != 0) {
-    const uint8_t br = (hl.bg >> 16) & 0xff;
-    const uint8_t bg = (hl.bg >> 8) & 0xff;
-    const uint8_t bb = hl.bg & 0xff;
-    io.write(std::format("\x1b[48;2;{};{};{}m", br, bg, bb));
-  }
-  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Bold)
-    io.write("\x1b[1m");
-  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Italic)
-    io.write("\x1b[3m");
-  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Underline)
-    io.write("\x1b[4m");
-  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Strikethrough)
-    io.write("\x1b[9m");
-}
-
-inline void reset(io::IO &io) {
-  io.write("\x1b[0m");
-}
-
-void GenericBuffer::print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
-  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
-  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
-  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
-  if (parser) {
-    auto it_o = parser->get_hl(root, start_line - 1);
-    auto &it = *it_o;
-    while (start_line <= end_line) {
-      it.next();
-      const std::string &line = it.it->line;
-      const auto &tokens = it.tokens;
-      uint32_t cursor = 0;
-      for (const auto &token : tokens) {
-        const uint32_t start = token.start;
-        const uint32_t end = token.end;
-        if (start > line.size() || end > line.size())
-          break;
-        if (cursor < start)
-          ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, start - cursor);
-        const auto highlight = ctx.theme.get(token);
-        apply(ctx.io, highlight);
-        ctx.io.write(line.data() + start, end - start);
-        reset(ctx.io);
-        cursor = end;
-      }
-      if (cursor < line.size())
-        ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, line.size() - cursor);
-      ctx.io.write_line("");
-      ++start_line;
-    }
-  } else {
-    vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
-    while (it.next() && start_line++ <= end_line)
-      ctx.io.write_line(it.line);
-  }
-}
-
-void GenericBuffer::number_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
-  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
-  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
-  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
-  uint8_t width = 1;
-  for (uint64_t n = end_line; n >= 10; n /= 10)
-    ++width;
-  if (parser) {
-    std::optional<syntax::Parser::Iterator> it_o = parser->get_hl(root, start_line - 1);
-    auto &it = *it_o;
-    while (start_line <= end_line) {
-      it.next();
-      ctx.io.write(std::format("{:>{}}\t", start_line, width));
-      const std::string &line = it.it->line;
-      const auto &tokens = it.tokens;
-      uint32_t cursor = 0;
-      for (const auto &token : tokens) {
-        const uint32_t start = token.start;
-        const uint32_t end = token.end;
-        if (start > line.size() || end > line.size())
-          break;
-        if (cursor < start)
-          ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, start - cursor);
-        const auto highlight = ctx.theme.get(token);
-        apply(ctx.io, highlight);
-        ctx.io.write(line.data() + start, end - start);
-        reset(ctx.io);
-        cursor = end;
-      }
-      if (cursor < line.size())
-        ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, line.size() - cursor);
-      ctx.io.write_line("");
-      ++start_line;
-    }
-  } else {
-    vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
-    while (it.next() && start_line <= end_line)
-      ctx.io.write_line(std::format("{:>{}}\t{}", start_line++, width, it.line));
-  }
-}
-
-void GenericBuffer::list_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
-  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
-  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
-  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
-  vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
-  while (it.next() && start_line++ <= end_line)
-    ctx.io.write_line(list_string(it.line));
-}
 } // namespace bed::internal::buffer
diff --git a/src/internal/buffer/shard.cc b/src/internal/buffer/shard.cc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a2d0f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/internal/buffer/shard.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+#include "bed.h"
+#include "internal/buffer/buffer.h"
+
+namespace bed::internal::buffer {
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::lines() {
+  if (root)
+    return root->lines + 1;
+  return 0;
+}
+
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::bytes() {
+  if (root)
+    return root->length + 1;
+  return 0;
+}
+
+vase::Shard *ShardBuffer::copy(uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  return vase::copy(root, start_line, end_line);
+}
+
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::find_next(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) {
+  return vase::find_next(root, pattern, start);
+}
+
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::find_prev(std::string_view pattern, uint64_t start) {
+  return vase::find_prev(root, pattern, start);
+}
+
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::next_closing(uint64_t start) {
+  if (parse.lang) {
+    uint64_t closing = syntax::next_closing(parse, start - 1);
+    if (closing == UINT64_MAX)
+      return lines();
+    return closing + 1;
+  } else {
+    start += 10;
+    if (start > lines())
+      return lines();
+    return start;
+  }
+}
+
+uint64_t ShardBuffer::prev_closing(uint64_t start) {
+  if (parse.lang) {
+    return syntax::prev_opening(parse, start - 1) + 1;
+  } else {
+    if (start > 10)
+      return start - 10;
+    return 0;
+  }
+}
+
+inline void apply(io::IO &io, const Highlight &hl) {
+  io.write("\x1b[0m");
+  const uint8_t r = (hl.fg >> 16) & 0xff;
+  const uint8_t g = (hl.fg >> 8) & 0xff;
+  const uint8_t b = hl.fg & 0xff;
+  io.write(std::format("\x1b[38;2;{};{};{}m", r, g, b));
+  if (hl.bg != 0) {
+    const uint8_t br = (hl.bg >> 16) & 0xff;
+    const uint8_t bg = (hl.bg >> 8) & 0xff;
+    const uint8_t bb = hl.bg & 0xff;
+    io.write(std::format("\x1b[48;2;{};{};{}m", br, bg, bb));
+  }
+  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Bold)
+    io.write("\x1b[1m");
+  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Italic)
+    io.write("\x1b[3m");
+  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Underline)
+    io.write("\x1b[4m");
+  if (hl.flags & Highlight::Strikethrough)
+    io.write("\x1b[9m");
+}
+
+inline void reset(io::IO &io) {
+  io.write("\x1b[0m");
+}
+
+void ShardBuffer::print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
+  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
+  if (parse.lang) {
+    auto it_o = syntax::get_hl(parse, root, start_line - 1);
+    if (!it_o)
+      goto h;
+    auto &it = *it_o;
+    while (start_line <= end_line) {
+      it.next();
+      const std::string &line = it.it->line;
+      const auto &tokens = it.tokens;
+      uint32_t cursor = 0;
+      for (const auto &token : tokens) {
+        const uint32_t start = token.start;
+        const uint32_t end = token.end;
+        if (start > line.size() || end > line.size())
+          break;
+        if (cursor < start)
+          ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, start - cursor);
+        const auto highlight = ctx.theme.get(token);
+        apply(ctx.io, highlight);
+        ctx.io.write(line.data() + start, end - start);
+        reset(ctx.io);
+        cursor = end;
+      }
+      if (cursor < line.size())
+        ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, line.size() - cursor);
+      ctx.io.write_line("");
+      ++start_line;
+    }
+  } else {
+  h:
+    vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
+    while (it.next() && start_line++ <= end_line)
+      ctx.io.write_line(it.line);
+  }
+}
+
+void ShardBuffer::number_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
+  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
+  uint8_t width = 1;
+  for (uint64_t n = end_line; n >= 10; n /= 10)
+    ++width;
+  if (parse.lang) {
+    std::optional<syntax::Iterator> it_o = syntax::get_hl(parse, root, start_line - 1);
+    if (!it_o)
+      goto h;
+    auto &it = *it_o;
+    while (start_line <= end_line) {
+      it.next();
+      ctx.io.write(std::format("{:>{}}\t", start_line, width));
+      const std::string &line = it.it->line;
+      const auto &tokens = it.tokens;
+      uint32_t cursor = 0;
+      for (const auto &token : tokens) {
+        const uint32_t start = token.start;
+        const uint32_t end = token.end;
+        if (start > line.size() || end > line.size())
+          break;
+        if (cursor < start)
+          ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, start - cursor);
+        const auto highlight = ctx.theme.get(token);
+        apply(ctx.io, highlight);
+        ctx.io.write(line.data() + start, end - start);
+        reset(ctx.io);
+        cursor = end;
+      }
+      if (cursor < line.size())
+        ctx.io.write(line.data() + cursor, line.size() - cursor);
+      ctx.io.write_line("");
+      ++start_line;
+    }
+  } else {
+  h:
+    vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
+    while (it.next() && start_line <= end_line)
+      ctx.io.write_line(std::format("{:>{}}\t{}", start_line++, width, it.line));
+  }
+}
+
+void ShardBuffer::list_print(BEd &ctx, uint64_t start_line, uint64_t end_line) {
+  ctx.prev().buffername = name;
+  ctx.prev().start = start_line;
+  ctx.prev().end = end_line;
+  vase::Iterator it(root, start_line - 1, Direction::Forward);
+  while (it.next() && start_line++ <= end_line)
+    ctx.io.write_line(list_string(it.line));
+}
+} // namespace bed::internal::buffer
diff --git a/src/internal/buffer/special/clip.cc b/src/internal/buffer/special/clip.cc
index e3189a3..ea60171 100644
--- a/src/internal/buffer/special/clip.cc
+++ b/src/internal/buffer/special/clip.cc
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ void ClipBuffer::substitute(
       if (old_lines)
         ctx.marks.erase(name, line, old_lines);
       if (new_lines)
-        ctx.marks.insert(name, line, line + new_lines - 1);
+        ctx.marks.insert(name, line, new_lines - 1);
     }
   );
   clip_write(s);
diff --git a/src/internal/functions/extended.cc b/src/internal/functions/extended.cc
index ec91b4a..6d1939b 100644
--- a/src/internal/functions/extended.cc
+++ b/src/internal/functions/extended.cc
@@ -97,5 +97,58 @@ void Function::register_extented(BEd &ctx) {
       },
     }
   );
+  ctx.functions.insert(
+    "U",
+    Function{
+      .address_kind = Function::AddressKind::None,
+      .argument_kind = Function::ArgumentKind::None,
+      .input_mode = Function::InputMode::None,
+      .desc = "Redo last undo.",
+      .default_address = "",
+      .accept_zero = false,
+      .pre_text_mode = nullptr,
+      .handle = [](
+                  BEd &ctx,
+                  const buffer::Address &addr_,
+                  vase::Shard *,
+                  const Argument &,
+                  std::vector<buffer::Line> *
+                ) {
+        auto &addr = std::get<std::string>(addr_);
+        auto &buf_ = ctx.buffer(addr);
+        if (buf_.kind != buffer::Buffer::Kind::Generic)
+          throw ed_error("Can't redo buffer");
+        auto &buf = *(buffer::GenericBuffer *)&buf_;
+        if (!buf.redo(ctx))
+          throw ed_error("Can't redo buffer.");
+      }
+    }
+  );
+  ctx.functions.insert(
+    "history-list",
+    Function{
+      .address_kind = Function::AddressKind::None,
+      .argument_kind = Function::ArgumentKind::None,
+      .input_mode = Function::InputMode::None,
+      .desc = "List history versions.",
+      .default_address = "",
+      .accept_zero = false,
+      .pre_text_mode = nullptr,
+      .handle = [](
+                  BEd &ctx,
+                  const buffer::Address &addr_,
+                  vase::Shard *,
+                  const Argument &,
+                  std::vector<buffer::Line> *
+                ) {
+        auto &addr = std::get<std::string>(addr_);
+        auto &buf_ = ctx.buffer(addr);
+        if (buf_.kind != buffer::Buffer::Kind::Generic)
+          throw ed_error("Can't redo buffer");
+        auto &buf = *(buffer::GenericBuffer *)&buf_;
+        buf.list_history(ctx);
+      }
+    }
+  );
 }
 } // namespace bed::internal::functions
diff --git a/src/internal/functions/posix.cc b/src/internal/functions/posix.cc
index 5411dc0..03cd760 100644
--- a/src/internal/functions/posix.cc
+++ b/src/internal/functions/posix.cc
@@ -213,10 +213,7 @@ void Function::register_posix(BEd &ctx) {
                   std::vector<buffer::Line> *
                 ) {
         auto &addr = std::get<std::string>(addr_);
-        auto &buf_ = ctx.buffer(addr);
-        if (buf_.kind != buffer::Buffer::Kind::Generic)
-          return;
-        auto &buf = *(buffer::GenericBuffer *)&buf_;
+        auto &buf = ctx.buffer(addr);
         if (std::holds_alternative<std::filesystem::path>(arg))
           buf.set_filename(std::get<std::filesystem::path>(arg));
         else if (std::holds_alternative<ShellArg>(arg))
@@ -649,6 +646,33 @@ void Function::register_posix(BEd &ctx) {
       },
     }
   );
+  ctx.functions.insert(
+    "u",
+    Function{
+      .address_kind = Function::AddressKind::None,
+      .argument_kind = Function::ArgumentKind::None,
+      .input_mode = Function::InputMode::None,
+      .desc = "Undo last modification to buffer.",
+      .default_address = "",
+      .accept_zero = false,
+      .pre_text_mode = nullptr,
+      .handle = [](
+                  BEd &ctx,
+                  const buffer::Address &addr_,
+                  vase::Shard *,
+                  const Argument &,
+                  std::vector<buffer::Line> *
+                ) {
+        auto &addr = std::get<std::string>(addr_);
+        auto &buf_ = ctx.buffer(addr);
+        if (buf_.kind != buffer::Buffer::Kind::Generic)
+          throw ed_error("Can't undo buffer");
+        auto &buf = *(buffer::GenericBuffer *)&buf_;
+        if (!buf.undo(ctx))
+          throw ed_error("Can't undo buffer.");
+      }
+    }
+  );
   ctx.functions.insert(
     "w",
     Function{
diff --git a/src/internal/syntax/iterator.cc b/src/internal/syntax/iterator.cc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..296e2aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/internal/syntax/iterator.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+#include "internal/syntax/parser.h"
+
+namespace bed::internal::syntax {
+Iterator::Iterator(uint64_t target, ParserSnapshot p, vase::Shard *vase)
+    : snap(p) {
+  uint64_t offset;
+  TreeCursor c = TreeCursor(*p.lang, p.root, target, &offset);
+  at = target - offset;
+  state = p.lang->copy(c.leaf->state);
+  it = vase::Iterator(vase, at, Direction::Forward);
+  while (at < target) {
+    it->next();
+    tokens.clear();
+    events.clear();
+    p.lang->parse(&state, it->line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
+    at++;
+  }
+}
+
+Iterator::~Iterator() {
+  if (state)
+    snap.lang->destroy(state);
+  release(snap);
+}
+
+Iterator::Iterator(Iterator &&other)
+    : snap(other.snap),
+      it(std::move(other.it)),
+      state(other.state),
+      tokens(std::move(other.tokens)) {
+  other.snap = {};
+  other.state = nullptr;
+}
+
+Iterator &Iterator::operator=(Iterator &&other) {
+  if (this == &other)
+    return *this;
+  if (state)
+    snap.lang->destroy(state);
+  snap = other.snap;
+  it = std::move(other.it);
+  state = other.state;
+  tokens = std::move(other.tokens);
+  other.state = nullptr;
+  return *this;
+}
+
+void Iterator::next() {
+  it->next();
+  tokens.clear();
+  events.clear();
+  snap.lang->parse(&state, it->line, at++ == 0, &tokens, &events);
+}
+} // namespace bed::internal::syntax
diff --git a/src/internal/syntax/parser.cc b/src/internal/syntax/parser.cc
index 0e0e234..a5cb9ab 100644
--- a/src/internal/syntax/parser.cc
+++ b/src/internal/syntax/parser.cc
@@ -1,265 +1,32 @@
 #include "internal/syntax/parser.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::syntax {
-static void destroy_tree(ParseState *node, Language &lang) {
-  if (!node)
-    return;
-  if (node->is_branch()) {
-    auto *branch = (ParseStateBranch *)node;
-    destroy_tree(branch->left, lang);
-    destroy_tree(branch->right, lang);
-    free(branch);
-  } else {
-    auto *leaf = (ParseStateLeaf *)node;
-    if (leaf->state)
-      lang.destroy(leaf->state);
-    if (leaf->blocks)
-      free(leaf->blocks);
-    free(leaf);
-  }
-}
-
-static ParseState *make_branch(ParseState *left, ParseState *right) {
-  if (!left)
-    return right;
-  if (!right)
-    return left;
-  auto *branch = (ParseStateBranch *)malloc(sizeof(ParseStateBranch));
-  branch->header = ParseState::BRANCH_BIT + left->lines() + right->lines();
-  branch->left = left;
-  branch->right = right;
-  return branch;
-}
-
-static ParseState *build_tree(std::vector<ParseStateLeaf *> &leaves, size_t begin, size_t end) {
-  const size_t count = end - begin;
-  if (count == 0)
-    return nullptr;
-  if (count == 1)
-    return leaves[begin];
-  const size_t mid = begin + count / 2;
-  ParseState *left = build_tree(leaves, begin, mid);
-  ParseState *right = build_tree(leaves, mid, end);
-  return make_branch(left, right);
-}
-
-Parser::Parser(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t lines, Language lang)
-    : root(nullptr), lang(lang) {
-  reset(vase, lines, lang);
-}
-
-Parser::~Parser() {
-  destroy_tree(root, lang);
-}
-
-void Parser::reset(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t lines, Language lang_) {
-  destroy_tree(root, lang);
-  root = nullptr;
+ParserSnapshot make_parser(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t lines, Language *lang) {
+  ParserSnapshot snap{nullptr, lang};
   if (lines == 0)
-    return;
-  lang = std::move(lang_);
-  std::vector<ParseStateLeaf *> leaves;
-  leaves.reserve((lines + MAX_CHUNK - 1) / MAX_CHUNK);
-  uint64_t consumed = 0;
-  while (consumed < lines) {
-    auto *leaf = (ParseStateLeaf *)malloc(sizeof(ParseStateLeaf));
-    leaf->state = nullptr;
-    leaf->blocks = nullptr;
-    leaf->n = 0;
-    leaf->cap = 0;
-    uint64_t chunk = std::min(MAX_CHUNK, lines - consumed);
-    leaf->header = chunk;
-    consumed += chunk;
-    leaves.push_back(leaf);
-  }
-  root = build_tree(leaves, 0, leaves.size());
-  modify(vase, 0, lines);
+    return snap;
+  if (lang)
+    snap.root = ParseState::splice(*lang, nullptr, vase, 0, 0, lines);
+  return snap;
 }
 
-std::pair<ParseState *, ParseState *> Parser::split_tree(ParseState *node, uint64_t line) {
-  if (!node)
-    return {nullptr, nullptr};
-  if (line == 0)
-    return {nullptr, node};
-  if (line >= node->lines())
-    return {node, nullptr};
-  if (node->is_branch()) {
-    auto *branch = (ParseStateBranch *)node;
-    uint64_t left_lines = branch->left->lines();
-    if (line < left_lines) {
-      auto [a, b] = split_tree(branch->left, line);
-      ParseState *right = join_tree(b, branch->right);
-      free(branch);
-      return {a, right};
-    }
-    if (line == left_lines) {
-      ParseState *left = branch->left;
-      ParseState *right = branch->right;
-      free(branch);
-      return {left, right};
-    }
-    auto [a, b] = split_tree(branch->right, line - left_lines);
-    ParseState *left = join_tree(branch->left, a);
-    free(branch);
-    return {left, b};
-  } else {
-    auto *leaf = (ParseStateLeaf *)node;
-    uint64_t lines = leaf->lines();
-    auto *right = (ParseStateLeaf *)malloc(sizeof(ParseStateLeaf));
-    right->header = lines - line;
-    right->state = nullptr;
-    right->blocks = nullptr;
-    right->n = 0;
-    right->cap = 0;
-    leaf->header = line;
-    leaf->n = 0;
-    return {leaf, right};
-  }
+ParserSnapshot retain(const ParserSnapshot &snap) {
+  if (snap.root)
+    ParseState::retain(snap.root);
+  return snap;
 }
 
-ParseState *Parser::join_tree(ParseState *a, ParseState *b) {
-  // TODO: balance
-  return make_branch(a, b);
+void release(ParserSnapshot &snap) {
+  if (snap.root && snap.lang)
+    ParseState::release(*snap.lang, snap.root);
+  snap.root = nullptr;
 }
 
-void Parser::erase(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
-  begin_edit();
-  erase(start, count);
-  end_edit(vase);
-}
-
-void Parser::insert(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
-  begin_edit();
-  insert(start, count);
-  end_edit(vase);
-}
-
-void Parser::modify(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t target, uint64_t count) {
-  if (count == 0 || !root)
-    return;
-  std::vector<Token> tokens;
-  std::vector<ParseEvent> events;
-  uint64_t offset;
-  TreeCursor c = TreeCursor(root, target, &offset);
-  uint64_t at = target - offset;
-  void *state = nullptr;
-  if (c.leaf->state) {
-    state = lang.copy(c.leaf->state);
-  } else {
-    while (!c.leaf->state) {
-      c.prev();
-      if (!c.leaf) {
-        at = 0;
-        break;
-      }
-      at -= c.leaf->lines();
-    }
-    if (c.leaf) {
-      state = lang.copy(c.leaf->state);
-    } else {
-      state = lang.none_state();
-      c = TreeCursor(root, 0, &offset);
-    }
-  }
-  vase::Iterator it(vase, at, Direction::Forward);
-  uint64_t chunk_start = at;
-  uint64_t next_boundary = at + c.leaf->lines();
-  c.leaf->n = 0;
-  while (true) {
-    it.next();
-    if (at == next_boundary) {
-      c.next();
-      if (!c.leaf)
-        break;
-      c.leaf->n = 0;
-      chunk_start = at;
-      next_boundary += c.leaf->lines();
-      if (at >= target + count
-          && c.leaf->state != nullptr
-          && lang.equal(state, c.leaf->state))
-        break;
-      if (c.leaf->state)
-        lang.destroy(c.leaf->state);
-      c.leaf->state = lang.copy(state);
-    }
-    tokens.clear();
-    events.clear();
-    lang.parse(&state, it.line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
-    for (const auto &ev : events) {
-      if (c.leaf->n == c.leaf->cap) {
-        uint32_t cap = c.leaf->cap ? c.leaf->cap * 2 : 8;
-        c.leaf->blocks = (uint16_t *)realloc(c.leaf->blocks, cap * sizeof(uint16_t));
-        c.leaf->cap = cap;
-      }
-      c.leaf->blocks[c.leaf->n++] = ev.closing << 15 | (at - chunk_start);
-    }
-    at++;
-  }
-  lang.destroy(state);
-}
-
-void Parser::begin_edit() {
-  in_edit = true;
-}
-
-void Parser::mark_dirty(uint64_t start, uint64_t end) {
-  if (!dirty) {
-    dirty_start = start;
-    dirty_end = end;
-    dirty = true;
-  } else {
-    dirty_start = std::min(dirty_start, start);
-    dirty_end = std::max(dirty_end, end);
-  }
-}
-
-void Parser::erase(uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
-  if (count == 0 || !root)
-    return;
-  auto [a, remaining] = split_tree(root, start);
-  auto [waste, b] = split_tree(remaining, count);
-  destroy_tree(waste, lang);
-  root = join_tree(a, b);
-  mark_dirty(start, start + 1);
-}
-
-void Parser::insert(uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
-  if (count == 0)
-    return;
-  std::vector<ParseStateLeaf *> leaves;
-  leaves.reserve((count + MAX_CHUNK - 1) / MAX_CHUNK);
-  uint64_t consumed = 0;
-  while (consumed < count) {
-    auto *leaf = (ParseStateLeaf *)malloc(sizeof(ParseStateLeaf));
-    leaf->state = nullptr;
-    leaf->blocks = nullptr;
-    leaf->n = 0;
-    leaf->cap = 0;
-    uint64_t chunk = std::min(MAX_CHUNK, count - consumed);
-    leaf->header = chunk;
-    consumed += chunk;
-    leaves.push_back(leaf);
-  }
-  ParseState *subtree = build_tree(leaves, 0, leaves.size());
-  auto [left, right] = split_tree(root, start);
-  root = join_tree(join_tree(left, subtree), right);
-  mark_dirty(start, start + count);
-}
-
-void Parser::end_edit(vase::Shard *vase) {
-  in_edit = false;
-  if (!dirty)
-    return;
-  uint64_t count = dirty_end > dirty_start ? dirty_end - dirty_start : 1;
-  modify(vase, dirty_start, count);
-  dirty = false;
-}
-
-uint64_t Parser::next_closing(uint64_t line) {
-  if (!root)
-    return UINT64_MAX;
+uint64_t next_closing(const ParserSnapshot &snap, uint64_t line) {
+  if (!snap.root || !snap.lang)
+    return line + 10;
   uint64_t relative = 0;
-  TreeCursor c(root, line, &relative);
+  TreeCursor c(*snap.lang, snap.root, line, &relative);
   uint64_t line_offset = line - relative;
   int level = 0;
   bool first_leaf = true;
@@ -283,14 +50,14 @@ uint64_t Parser::next_closing(uint64_t line) {
     c.next();
     first_leaf = false;
   }
-  return UINT64_MAX;
+  return (snap.root->lines() - line > 10 ? line + 10 : snap.root->lines());
 }
 
-uint64_t Parser::prev_opening(uint64_t line) {
-  if (!root)
+uint64_t prev_opening(const ParserSnapshot &snap, uint64_t line) {
+  if (!snap.root || !snap.lang)
     return 0;
   uint64_t relative = 0;
-  TreeCursor c(root, line, &relative);
+  TreeCursor c(*snap.lang, snap.root, line, &relative);
   uint64_t line_offset = line - relative;
   int level = 0;
   bool first_leaf = true;
@@ -315,77 +82,66 @@ uint64_t Parser::prev_opening(uint64_t line) {
     if (c.leaf)
       line_offset -= c.leaf->lines();
   }
-  return 0;
+  return (line > 10 ? line - 10 : 0);
 }
 
-std::optional<Parser::Iterator> Parser::get_hl(vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t target) {
-  if (!root)
+std::optional<Iterator> get_hl(const ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t target) {
+  if (!snap.root || !snap.lang)
     return std::nullopt;
-  return Parser::Iterator(target, this, vase);
+  return Iterator(target, retain(snap), vase);
 }
 
-Parser::Iterator::Iterator(uint64_t target, Parser *p, vase::Shard *vase) : p(p) {
-  uint64_t offset;
-  TreeCursor c = TreeCursor(p->root, target, &offset);
-  at = target - offset;
-  if (c.leaf->state) {
-    state = p->lang.copy(c.leaf->state);
+void Edit::mark_dirty(uint64_t start, uint64_t end) {
+  if (!dirty) {
+    dirty_start = start;
+    dirty_end = end;
+    dirty = true;
   } else {
-    while (!c.leaf->state) {
-      c.prev();
-      if (!c.leaf) {
-        at = 0;
-        break;
-      }
-      at -= c.leaf->lines();
-    }
-    if (c.leaf) {
-      state = p->lang.copy(c.leaf->state);
-    } else {
-      state = p->lang.none_state();
-      c = TreeCursor(p->root, 0, &offset);
-    }
-  }
-  it = vase::Iterator(vase, at, Direction::Forward);
-  while (at < target) {
-    it->next();
-    tokens.clear();
-    events.clear();
-    p->lang.parse(&state, it->line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
-    at++;
+    dirty_start = std::min(dirty_start, start);
+    dirty_end = std::max(dirty_end, end);
   }
 }
 
-Parser::Iterator::~Iterator() {
-  if (state)
-    p->lang.destroy(state);
+void Edit::insert(uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
+  if (count == 0)
+    return;
+  uint64_t orig_pos = (uint64_t)((int64_t)start - edit_delta);
+  mark_dirty(orig_pos, orig_pos);
+  edit_delta += (int64_t)count;
 }
 
-Parser::Iterator::Iterator(Iterator &&other)
-    : p(other.p),
-      it(std::move(other.it)),
-      state(other.state),
-      tokens(std::move(other.tokens)) {
-  other.state = nullptr;
+void Edit::erase(uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
+  if (count == 0 || !target->root)
+    return;
+  uint64_t orig_start = (uint64_t)((int64_t)start - edit_delta);
+  uint64_t orig_end = orig_start + count;
+  mark_dirty(orig_start, orig_end);
+  edit_delta -= (int64_t)count;
 }
 
-Parser::Iterator &Parser::Iterator::operator=(Iterator &&other) {
-  if (this == &other)
-    return *this;
-  if (state)
-    p->lang.destroy(state);
-  p = other.p;
-  it = std::move(other.it);
-  state = other.state;
-  tokens = std::move(other.tokens);
-  other.state = nullptr;
-  return *this;
+void Edit::commit(vase::Shard *vase) {
+  if (!dirty || !target->lang)
+    return;
+  uint64_t line = dirty_start;
+  uint64_t original = dirty_end - dirty_start;
+  uint64_t final = (uint64_t)((int64_t)original + edit_delta);
+  ParseState *new_root =
+    ParseState::splice(*target->lang, target->root, vase, line, original, final);
+  release(*target);
+  target->root = new_root;
+  dirty = false;
+  edit_delta = 0;
 }
 
-void Parser::Iterator::next() {
-  it->next();
-  tokens.clear();
-  events.clear();
-  p->lang.parse(&state, it->line, at++ == 0, &tokens, &events);
+void insert(ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
+  Edit e(snap);
+  e.insert(start, count);
+  e.commit(vase);
+}
+
+void erase(ParserSnapshot &snap, vase::Shard *vase, uint64_t start, uint64_t count) {
+  Edit e(snap);
+  e.erase(start, count);
+  e.commit(vase);
 }
 } // namespace bed::internal::syntax
diff --git a/src/internal/syntax/parser_state.cc b/src/internal/syntax/parser_state.cc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e045d44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/internal/syntax/parser_state.cc
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+#include "internal/syntax/parser.h"
+
+namespace bed::internal::syntax {
+void ParseState::retain(ParseState *n) {
+  if (n)
+    n->refs++;
+};
+
+void ParseState::release(Language &lang, ParseState *n) {
+  if (!n || --n->refs > 0)
+    return;
+  if (n->is_branch()) {
+    auto *branch = (ParseStateBranch *)n;
+    release(lang, branch->left);
+    release(lang, branch->right);
+    delete branch;
+  } else {
+    auto *leaf = (ParseStateLeaf *)n;
+    if (leaf->state)
+      lang.destroy(leaf->state);
+    if (leaf->blocks)
+      free(leaf->blocks);
+    delete leaf;
+  }
+}
+
+int height(ParseState *n) {
+  return n ? n->height : 0;
+}
+
+int balance_factor(ParseState *n) {
+  ParseStateBranch *b = (ParseStateBranch *)n;
+  return height(b->left) - height(b->right);
+}
+
+ParseState *rotate_right(Language &lang, ParseStateBranch *z) {
+  ParseStateBranch *y = (ParseStateBranch *)z->left;
+  ParseState *middle = new ParseStateBranch(y->right, z->right);
+  ParseState *out = new ParseStateBranch(y->left, middle);
+  ParseState::release(lang, middle);
+  ParseState::release(lang, z);
+  return out;
+}
+
+ParseState *rotate_left(Language &lang, ParseStateBranch *z) {
+  ParseStateBranch *y = (ParseStateBranch *)z->right;
+  ParseState *middle = new ParseStateBranch(z->left, y->left);
+  ParseState *out = new ParseStateBranch(middle, y->right);
+  ParseState::release(lang, middle);
+  ParseState::release(lang, z);
+  return out;
+}
+
+ParseState *balance(Language &lang, ParseState *node) {
+  if (!node || !node->is_branch())
+    return node;
+  ParseStateBranch *b = (ParseStateBranch *)node;
+  int bf = balance_factor(node);
+  if (bf > 1) {
+    ParseStateBranch *left = (ParseStateBranch *)b->left;
+    if (balance_factor(left) < 0) {
+      ParseState::retain(left);
+      auto new_left = rotate_left(lang, left);
+      auto rebuilt = new ParseStateBranch(new_left, b->right);
+      auto result = rotate_right(lang, (ParseStateBranch *)rebuilt);
+      ParseState::release(lang, new_left);
+      ParseState::release(lang, b);
+      return result;
+    }
+    return rotate_right(lang, b);
+  }
+  if (bf < -1) {
+    ParseStateBranch *right = (ParseStateBranch *)b->right;
+    if (balance_factor(right) > 0) {
+      ParseState::retain(right);
+      auto new_right = rotate_right(lang, right);
+      auto rebuilt = new ParseStateBranch(b->left, new_right);
+      auto result = rotate_left(lang, (ParseStateBranch *)rebuilt);
+      ParseState::release(lang, new_right);
+      ParseState::release(lang, b);
+      return result;
+    }
+    return rotate_left(lang, b);
+  }
+  return node;
+}
+
+ParseState *ParseState::build(Language &lang, ParseState **pieces, uint64_t lo, uint64_t hi) {
+  if (hi - lo == 1)
+    return pieces[lo];
+  uint64_t mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2;
+  ParseState *left = build(lang, pieces, lo, mid);
+  ParseState *right = build(lang, pieces, mid, hi);
+  ParseState *node = concat(lang, left, right);
+  release(lang, left);
+  release(lang, right);
+  return node;
+}
+
+ParseState *ParseState::splice(
+  Language &lang, ParseState *root, vase::Shard *vase,
+  uint64_t line, uint64_t original, uint64_t final
+) {
+  if (!vase)
+    return nullptr;
+  if (!root || (line == 0 && root->lines() == original)) {
+    vase::Iterator it(vase, 0, Direction::Forward);
+    void *state = lang.none_state();
+    std::vector<Token> tokens;
+    std::vector<ParseEvent> events;
+    ParsePieceBuilder builder(lang, 0);
+    for (uint64_t at = 0; at < final; ++at) {
+      it.next();
+      tokens.clear();
+      events.clear();
+      lang.parse(&state, it.line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
+      builder.add(state, at, events);
+    }
+    lang.destroy(state);
+    return builder.finish();
+  }
+  uint64_t at;
+  void *state;
+  ParseState *prefix;
+  {
+    uint64_t offset;
+    TreeCursor c = TreeCursor(lang, root, line, &offset);
+    prefix = c.prefix();
+    at = line - offset;
+    state = lang.copy(c.leaf->state);
+  }
+  vase::Iterator it(vase, at, Direction::Forward);
+  std::vector<Token> tokens;
+  std::vector<ParseEvent> events;
+  uint64_t end_in_tree = line + original;
+  uint64_t end_extra;
+  TreeCursor c = TreeCursor(lang, root, end_in_tree, &end_extra);
+  uint64_t end_in_vase = line + final;
+  ParsePieceBuilder builder(lang, at);
+  while (at < end_in_vase + end_extra) {
+    it.next();
+    tokens.clear();
+    events.clear();
+    lang.parse(&state, it.line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
+    builder.add(state, at, events);
+    ++at;
+  }
+  c.next();
+  while (c.leaf) {
+    if (lang.equal(state, c.leaf->state))
+      break;
+    for (uint64_t i = 0; i < c.leaf->lines(); ++i) {
+      it.next();
+      tokens.clear();
+      events.clear();
+      lang.parse(&state, it.line, at == 0, &tokens, &events);
+      builder.add(state, at, events);
+      ++at;
+    }
+    c.next();
+  }
+  lang.destroy(state);
+  ParseState *suffix = c.suffix();
+  ParseState *new_stuff = builder.finish();
+  auto a = concat(lang, prefix, new_stuff);
+  release(lang, prefix);
+  release(lang, new_stuff);
+  auto result = concat(lang, a, suffix);
+  release(lang, a);
+  release(lang, suffix);
+  return result;
+}
+
+ParseState *ParseState::concat(Language &lang, ParseState *a, ParseState *b) {
+  if (!a)
+    return (retain(b), b);
+  if (!b)
+    return (retain(a), a);
+  if (a->height > b->height + 1) {
+    ParseStateBranch *ba = (ParseStateBranch *)a;
+    ParseState *r = concat(lang, ba->right, b);
+    ParseState *out = balance(lang, new ParseStateBranch(ba->left, r));
+    release(lang, r);
+    return out;
+  }
+  if (b->height > a->height + 1) {
+    ParseStateBranch *bb = (ParseStateBranch *)b;
+    ParseState *l = concat(lang, a, bb->left);
+    ParseState *out = balance(lang, new ParseStateBranch(l, bb->right));
+    release(lang, l);
+    return out;
+  }
+  return balance(lang, new ParseStateBranch(a, b));
+}
+} // namespace bed::internal::syntax
diff --git a/src/internal/syntax/tree_cursor.cc b/src/internal/syntax/tree_cursor.cc
index bcd83d2..cd95af6 100644
--- a/src/internal/syntax/tree_cursor.cc
+++ b/src/internal/syntax/tree_cursor.cc
@@ -1,7 +1,19 @@
 #include "internal/syntax/decl.h"
 
 namespace bed::internal::syntax {
-TreeCursor::TreeCursor(ParseState *root, uint64_t target_line, uint64_t *relative) {
+TreeCursor::~TreeCursor() {
+  ParseState::release(lang, root);
+}
+
+TreeCursor::TreeCursor(
+  Language &lang, ParseState *root,
+  uint64_t target_line, uint64_t *relative
+) : lang(lang), root(root) {
+  if (!root) {
+    *relative = 0;
+    return;
+  }
+  ParseState::retain(root);
   ParseState *node = root;
   while (node->is_branch()) {
     auto *branch = (ParseStateBranch *)node;
@@ -63,4 +75,42 @@ void TreeCursor::prev() {
   }
   leaf = nullptr;
 }
+
+ParseState *TreeCursor::prefix() {
+  ParseState *result = nullptr;
+  for (uint8_t i = 0; i < depth; ++i) {
+    if (went_left[i])
+      continue;
+    auto *branch = stack[i];
+    ParseState *piece = branch->left;
+    if (!result) {
+      ParseState::retain(piece);
+      result = piece;
+    } else {
+      ParseState *next = ParseState::concat(lang, result, piece);
+      ParseState::release(lang, result);
+      result = next;
+    }
+  }
+  return result;
+}
+
+ParseState *TreeCursor::suffix() {
+  ParseState *result = nullptr;
+  for (uint8_t i = depth; i-- > 0;) {
+    if (!went_left[i])
+      continue;
+    auto *branch = stack[i];
+    ParseState *piece = branch->right;
+    if (!result) {
+      ParseState::retain(piece);
+      result = piece;
+    } else {
+      ParseState *next = ParseState::concat(lang, result, piece);
+      ParseState::release(lang, result);
+      result = next;
+    }
+  }
+  return result;
+}
 } // namespace bed::internal::syntax